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The Rulers of Poland



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5. Decline and Partition

The wars of the 17th century had left Poland ruined. The population had decreased by a third and the victory at Vienna was the Commonwealth's last military success. The need for reform had become obvious even during the reign of Sigismund III Wasa. The general decline was especially noticed in the Sejm; the parliamentary system grew awkward and ineffective as deputies used the notorious "Liberum Veto", which allowed any deputy to prevent legislation since all resolutions had to be carried unanimously.

The idea of consensus rule was, in principle, a good one but the "liberum Veto" was mis-used already in 1652 by a deputy in the pay or power of a magnate. It soon became obvious to Poland's neighbours that the veto could be used to their own political ends and they soon clubbed together to "defend Polish freedoms". The nobility themselves, becoming less influential as they lost their military valour and, in many cases, impoverished, saw the veto as the last symbol of their ability to play a role in the running of the Commonwealth.


King August II
 (the Strong)
(1670-1733)
King Stanislaw Leszczynski
(1677-1766)

In 1697 the Elector of Saxony, August, was elected King. Against Poland's real interests, August II allied himself with Tsar Peter I of Russia and became involved in a war with Sweden for control of the Baltic (the Great Northern War). Poland became a battlefield and the Polish throne the prize. When Charles XII of Sweden invaded Poland in 1704, part of the gentry deposed Augustus and elected the Voivod of Poznan, Stanislaw Leszczynski, in his place. In 1709 however, the Russians defeated Charles XII at Poltava and August was returned to the throne.

Conflicts between August and the Sejm almost ended in civil war in 1717, only prevented by a Russian offer of "mediation": 18,000 Russian troops surrounded the chamber where the deputies met, and they were denied the right to speak whilst the Russian "mediator" dictated the Russian solution. This Sejm became known as the "Dumb Sejm" and the Republic became little more than a Russian client state; this was the start of the Russian "Protectorate" in which Poland was forced to reduce her standing army.

After the death of Augustus II in 1736, Leszczynski was again elected king of Poland, but Russian and Saxon intervention forced him to abdicate again. August's son, Frederick August, was elected the new king. Augustus III was an indolent and incapable monarch, but he did enjoy popularity among certain sections of the gentry, because he did not interfere in state affairs and tolerated the licence of the magnates and their lesser peers. Under his reign, Poland completely lost her significance on the international arena.

The sixty-six years of Saxon rule, from 1697-1763, were a national disaster and drove the country to the brink of anarchy. Most ominous was the fact that in 1732 Russia, Prussia and Austria had entered into a secret alliance to maintain the paralysis of law and order within Poland. This pact became known as the "Alliance of the Three Black Eagles" (since all three powers had a black eagle in their coat-of-arms).

The reign of the magnate Stanislaw August Poniatowski (1764-1795), a favourite of Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, was totally controlled by Russia. He was an enlightened man, well educated and sensitive. He did a lot to raise the level of the Polish elites and modernise the country. However, when faced with the strong opposition of the empress, he quickly capitulated and agreed to abdicate. Poniatowski was to become the last King of Poland.


King August III
(1696-1763)
King Stanislaw August Poniatowski
(1732-1798)

Between 1768-1772, an anti-Russian uprising became known as the "Confederation of Bar". The uprising was crushed by the Russians, and over 5000 captured nobles were sent to Siberia. In 1772 Prussia, Russia and Austria then agreed to annex parts of the country. The Commonwealth lost 733,000 sq.km (23%) of her former territory and 4.5 million of her population; Prussia took the smallest, but economically best, area; Austria took the most heavily populated areas, while Russia took the largest, but least important. To give the crime some legality the Sejm was forced to ratify the partition in 1773.

Despite the disaster of this first partition, Poland underwent a national revival in 1773, thanks to the efforts of Poniatowski. The first step was the creation of the "Committee of National Education", the first Ministry of Education in Europe. Hundreds of schools were founded and the standard of education was raised. Writers, poets, artists and scholars were encouraged by the King and the ideas of the Enlightenment were taking hold.

Taking advantage of Russia's involvement in a war against Turkey, the King launched a political reform programme (1788-1792). The task was carried out by the "Four-Year" or "Great Sejm" which established a new Constitution in 1791. The "liberum Veto" was abolished and a majority rule introduced, and personal freedom guaranteed to all the people. The Constitution was hailed in the United States, England and France, but was seen as a threat to the absolute rulers of Prussia, Austria and, especially, Russia. Thus, in 1792, at Russia's instigation a handful of magnates betrayed the Commonwealth and formed the Confederation of Targowica against the new Constitution and then "asked" for help. Russian troops crossed the borders and war broke out. The Prussians joined in, attacking the Polish armies in the rear. Many patriots were forced to flee.

In 1793 Russia and Prussia then signed the Second Partition Treaty, this time seizing more than half the country and about four million more of the population. The last Sejm of the Commonwealth was forced to legalise the partition and abolish most of the reforms of the "Great Sejm".

Finally, in 1795, the third partition wiped what was left of Poland off the map. The King was forced to abdicate and taken to St. Petersburg where he died in 1798.

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